The Idea of Holiness in Hinduism

Daniel ACHARUPARAMBIL OCD

Editor's Note: Fr. Daniel Acharuparambil, o.c.d. is professor of Hinduism in the Pontifical University and Consultor to the PCID.

It is a well known fact that Hindu tradition has produced, from the time of its remotest history to the present day, almost in every generation and in every part of India, numerous sages (rsi), mystics and yogis, - men who dedicated the best of their energies in tenacious pursuit of the Divine. Such men make an enormous appeal to the Indian mind even in this secularised world.

The difficult path they traversed and the supreme goal they realized were all utilized to enlighten the lives of other seekers of the Divine. The various disciplines of yoga, which have become the typical dimension of Indian spirituality and mysticism, are nothing but the crystallization of the different means and methods adopted by the sages and saints of India in their relentless search for the Absolute. The institution of guru-sisya relationship ensures that these disciplines do not remain merely objects of theoretical investigation, but are kept alive through practical experience. That is why India still attracts people from the world over as a haven of spiritual illumination.

It should be borne in mind that presently we are not dealing with the popular religiosity and the related observances of the Hindus, such as veneration of the divinity (puja) at home or in the temple, recitation of scriptural texts and the use sacred formulas in the form of japa or kirtan, celebration of various religious festivities, sacramental rites (samskara), pilgrimages, sacred baths, and so on. Such things are important in as much as they keep alive the religious identity of the people and instill in them a sense of belonging and cohesion. But our concern here is the search for holiness which, according to the Hindu view goes beyond these common observances, so much so that when one seriously and resolutely adopts the spiritual path leading to Divine experience, one is no more bound to follow such common religious practices.

The Hindu holy men are not modelled after a uniform pattern, because the tradition has never insisted upon uniformity either of doctrine or of discipline. The principle justifying this pluralistic approach is that of adhikarabheda, the variety of spiritual competence of individuals. Different are the temperamental predispositions of people: some are mainly affective and sentimental, others meditative and contemplative, still others active and extrovert. Hence spiritual disciplines, to be efficacious, must take into serious account such inborn tendencies of people.

Accordingly several spiritual paths have been proposed, under different shades of emphasis, with credible examples confirming them through the centuries¹. Thus, for instance, Manikkavachakar (lOth c.) and Mira Bai (1498-1546) who were singing in touching words the love of God, Sri Ramakrishna (18361886) and Ramana Maharshi (1879-1950) who were immersed in the contemplation of the Divine, Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948) and Vinoba Bhave (1895-1982) who were keenly involved in the service of the needy, are all holy men highly esteemed by the Hindus. This wide variety of models makes our task of speaking of the idea of holiness in Hindu tradition far from easy.

We may, however, bring out some characteristic features which Hindus in general regard as the hallmark of authentic holiness independently of the specific path being followed. They may be considered under three aspects: 1) the personal dimension; 2) the horizontal dimension; and 3) the vertical dimension. Obviously these are not watertight compartments, but interdependent and mutually enriching facets of the same spiritual quest.

I — THE PERSONAL DIMENSION OF HOLINESS

Among the qualities that should stand out in a Hindu holy man in his personal, self-regarding aspect, renunciation (vairagya), asceticism (tapas) and equanimity (sthita-prajna) may be pointed out as particularly important.

Renunciation (vairagya)

The spirit of renunciation is an indispensable condition for a seeker of God. Hindu masters teach: Yoga and bhoga, union with God and worldly enjoyment, cannot go hand in hand. The Sanskrit term commonly used to indicate renunciation of the goods and pleasures of this world is vairagya ², meaning without desires, without attachments. The main foundation of renunciation vairagya) is the discernment (viveka) between the real and the unreal, the only permanently real being the Divine, compared to which everything else is unreal, transitory, illusory ³.

As a matter of fact without a profound conviction about the absolute nature of the Divine and a radical option for him, there can be no resolute commitment to seeking him. Desire for transitory goods is the root cause of all the spiritual evils of man. Therefore the Katha Upanisad declares: "When are liberated all the desires that lodge in one's heart, then a mortal becomes immortal! Therein he reaches Brahman" ⁴.

Chastity is a very important aspect of renunciation and expresses one's total dedication to the Divine search. Brahmacarya, meaning to walk with God or to follow the path of God, is the Sanskrit term employed to indicate either chastity or celibacy. As Gandhi teaches: "Brahmacarya is not mere mechanical celibacy, it means complete control over all the senses and freedom from lust in thought, word and deed. As such it is the royal road to self-realization or attainment of Brahman"⁵.

Even though Hindu tradition does not insist on life-long celibacy, once one adopts the path of holiness one has to be irreproachable in the practice of chastity. Since fidelity to it requires the assiduous observance of many other virtues, chastity is esteemed as the very symbol of one's spiritual vitality. Hindu masters, besides, maintain that by the resolute exercise of chastity, the sexenergy is sublimated into a higher spiritual energy (ojas) which enriches man's personality with a special radiance (tejas) and force. It is this spiritual energy that accounts for the extraordinary authority and fascination wielded by many a holy man.

2. Asceticism (tapas)

The spirit of renunciation can be maintained only through asceticism. Tapas, the term used to indicate asceticism, means 'heat', with the implication of the ideas of exertion, fatigue and self-renunciation. It signifies all forms of pursuit of self-discipline undertaken for a spiritual end.

The Hindu tradition has often exaggerated the importance of asceticism to the extent of looking upon even self-torture as a sign of high spiritual attainment. Both in the scriptures and the tradition there are plenty of instances of persons practising severe penances with a view to acquiring some superhuman powers. It was indeed believed that through rigorous and persevering penance one could obtain whatever one wanted. Accordingly the ascetics invented various forms of self-torture, so much so that J. N. Farquhar observes: "No man will ever be able to tell the self-inflicted horrors which the forests and mountains of India have witnessed" ⁶.

Though exaggerations have not disappeared altogether, all the important scriptures advocate a moderate approach and underline the properly religious and spiritual motivation of asceticism (tapas) as a necessary means of gaining control over passions and attachments and reaching inner concentration and spiritual realization ⁷. "If one does not practise austerity, there is no success in the knowledge of the Atman nor perfection of works", declares the Maitri Upanisad ⁸.

The Bhagavad-gita, after denouncing all kinds of extravagant and ostentatious austerities, recommends as the best forms of tapas the following virtuous and salutary habits: due reverence to gods, teachers and elders, cleanliness, uprightness, chastity (brahmacarya), non-violence (ahimsa), - this is penance of the body; words that are truthful, useful, kind and pleasing, and the constant practice of recitation of the scriptures, - this is penance of the tongue; serenity of mind, silence, self-restraint, and the cleansing of one's affections, - this is penance of the mind ⁹.

In any case the spirit of asceticism should pervade every aspect of life of the God-seeker: food, clothing, dwelling and the whole life-style. In fact Hindus are profoundly convinced of the fact that the comforts of life and the growth of the spirit are incompatible. Hence they cannot think of a spiritual man who is not an ascetic.

3. Equanimiy (sthita-prajna)

The exercise of renunciation, self-discipline, control of passions, and the like concur to create in the God-seeker the spirit of equanimity, which, according to the Indian view, is the sure sign of a spiritually mature and perfect man. This state is indicated by terms like sthita-prajna or stable mindedness, samata or equality, and implies that no person, no object, no event nor experience should disturb one's internal serenity.

The ideal proposed is that of remaining unaffected by the pairs of opposites like friend and foe, pleasure and pain, and so forth. As Lord Krsna states in the Bhagavad-gita: "I love the man who neither exults nor hates, who neither grieves nor desires, who puts away both pleasant and unpleasant things, (...) who is the same to foe and friend, the same whether he be respected or despised, the same in heat and cold, in pleasure and pain, who has put away attachment and remains unmoved by praise or blame, who is silent, and contented with whatever comes his way" ¹⁰. It is to be borne in mind that this is no mere stoicism, but an eminently religious attitude arising from the clear recognition and the adoring acceptance of the fact that every person, event and experience manifest the Divine presence, a divine plan and a divine finality.

The equanimity culminates in a profound peace, santi, which is the gift of all gifts. Without peace, no other goods on earth can make man happy, whereas even if everything else is lacking, he can be deeply happy if he has peace within himself. Peace is something more positive than equanimity; it carries with it a sense of settled and harmonious rest, a feeling of liberation and a tranquil joy and fullness. Having peace within himself and peace with all beings, the seeker of God is a powerful mediator of peace on earth. Hence his habit of uttering repeatedly the invocation of peace, OM! santi!

II — THE HORIZONTAL DIMENSION OF HOLINESS

With regard to the attitude a Hindu holy man fosters towards the world around him, the following deserve special mention: the sense of the sacred and the virtue of ahimsa or universal love.

1. The Sense of the Sacred

The Hindu tradition does not encourage either a simply natural or ~ merely scientific view of the world; it wants its followers to appreciate the sacredness of all that exists and to live in intimacy with the invisible Divine through the visible universe. As Tagore puts it: "The fundamental unity of creation was not simply a philosophical speculation for India; it was her life-object to realize this great harmony in feeling and in action. With meditation and service, with a regulation of her life, she cultivated her consciousness in such a way that everything had a spiritual meaning to her" ¹¹. There may be gradations in the sacredness of things, but the distinction of the sacred and the profane is deemed artificial and meaningless.

In the early phase of the evolution of Hindu thought, as represented by the Vedic texts, the natural phenomena were all sacred because they were considered as veritable expressions of divinities. Struck by the wonderful powers of nature and their own subordination to them, the Vedic men divinized them. Thus the earth and the sky, the sun and the moon, the wind and the rain, the storm and the fire were all divinities to be praised and propitiated through hymns and offerings. Consequently Vedic men grew up with the feeling of living in the midst of gods and goddesses.

In its further development Hinduism did not abandon its primitive foundations, but enriched them with more profound intuitions and interpretations. In fact at no stage of its history did Hindu tradition reject its view of the sacredness of natural phenomena, but according to the better articulated teaching they are sacred, not because they are so many gods and goddesses, but because they are permeated by the Divine presence and power, because the Supreme Spirit is immanent in them.

For example, the Isa Upanisad opens with this solemn declaration: "By the Lord enveloped must this all be - whatever moving thing there is in the moving world". The whole universe with its innumerable beings is said to be the "body" of the Divine Spirit who, abiding in each and every one of them, sustains and guides it. Hence Antar-yanin, the Inner Controller, is one of His best epithets. The Brhadaranyaka Upanisad states: "He who, dwelling in all things, yet is other than all things, whom al' things do not know, whose body all things are, who controls all things from within - He is your Atman, the Inner Controller (Antaryamin), the Immortal" ¹². According to a significant expression of the Bhagavad-gita, this entire universe is strung on the Lord like clustered pearls upon a thread ¹³. And again: "In the region of the heart of all beings dwells the Lord" ¹⁴.

Consequently man's relationship with nature is not that of struggle and conquest, but of respect and harmony. Man has not received the charge to 'take command of the fishes in the sea, and all that flies through the air, and all the living beings that move on the earth'; he is only one among the living beings, their elder brother, whose duty is to live in harmony with the whole creation and find peace and joy in that harmony.

2. Ahimsa or Universal Lore

If everything is sacred because of the Divine presence in it, living beings are even more so because life is the very palpitation of that presence. Hence every creature, not only human beings, is to be treated with respect. Ahimsa is an important virtue man should practise. Etymologically ahimsa (the opposite of himsa) means refraining from causing pain or injury to any living being. Expressed in a negative form, it implies the positive attitude of universal love Hence the commandment of fraternal love, according to Hindu masters, is on: a partial aspect of the sublime experience of the unity and sacredness of life Man is just a member of the great family of living beings, all of which deserve

respectful treatment ¹⁵.

It is a well known fact that in Indian tradition there are examples of exaggerating the principle of ahimsa to the extent of making ordinary life almost impossible. For instance, the Jain monk sweeps the ground before him and breathes through a cloth tied over his nose and mouth, in order that he may not cause any injury to small insects. Such instances apart, Hindu tradition has always inculcated the spirit of ahimsa or universal love.

One of the principal daily duties of a householder is the so-called bhuta yajna, or sacrifice in honour of living beings, meaning to treat wel1 and to feed living creatures. This world-view is to be lived with greater fidelity by the Hindu monk (sannyasin). He must be an embodiment of the virtue of ahimsa, refraining from the least injury to any living being. The Law-giver ordains: "In order to preserve living creatures, let him always by day and by night, even with pain to his body, walk, carefully scanning the ground" ¹⁶. He is, more over, advised to practise some penance everyday in order to expiate the possible unconscious injuries he might have caused to creatures. In modern times Gandhi was one of the most prominent exponents of the principle of ahimsa. He says: "Ahimsa means 'Love' in the Pauline sense, and yet something more than the 'Love' defined by St. Paul (...). Ahimsa includes the whole creation, and not only human" ^17.

III — THE VERTICAL DIMENSION OF THE HINDU VIEW OF HOLINESS

Holiness above all is an intimate, personal experience of the Divine and the proper means of arriving at it is prayer and contemplation. It should however be borne in mind that a sustained contemplation culminating in the inner experience is possible only if one is adequately prepared for it by assiduously cultivating the virtues and dispositions mentioned above. In this context we may briefly dwell on two important points: 1) prayer and contemplation; 2) inner experience.

1. Prayer and Contemplation

A genuine seeker of holiness aiming at as he does nothing less than an intimate, personal experience of the Divine, resorts to prayer and contemplation as the immediate means and method. Here what is intended is not any formal, ritual prayer. As a matter of fact a Hindu seeker who has resolutely undertaken the spiritual journey, is free from the common obligations of religious rites and ceremonies. His main concern is a whole-hearted dedication to meditation and contemplation. The guidance of a competent guru ensures the expeditious realization of the goal.

It is well known that Hinduism has a glorious tradition in the matter of meditation, which is not a mere intellectual activity, reflection or sustained thinking, but the effective means for entering into the depth of one's interiority, the cave of one's heart, and experiencing therein the Supreme Reality. The age-old methods of Yoga enhances the intensity and efficacy of the practice of contemplative meditation. The techniques like certain bodily postures (asana) and regulated breathing (pranayama) facilitate prolonged absorption in the Divine.

Besides these, there is another simple and proven means of continued divine communion, namely the practice of japa, that is the repetition, oral or mental, with faith, love and attention, of a Divine Name (nama-japa) or of a sacred formula (mantra-japa). This exercise is based on the belief in the great intrinsic power of God's Name or mantra, which is not just a human word, but the verbal form of the Divine Presence. However one does not discover that Presence by just a random practice of japa. Through the continued and devout repetition of it thoughts become steady and settled on the meaning of the Name or the mantra, the mind and heart, sentiments and desires converge on it, and finally one gets immersed in the peace and joy of the awareness of the Divine. Hence Hindu seekers alternate between japa and meditation in order to keep alive a constant divine communion.

2. Inner Experience

If in all religions experience counts, in Hinduism it is of paramount importance. In fact the typical Hindu spirituality is experience (anubhava) oriented and considers such experience as the very criterion of spiritital perfection and genuine holiness. The nature of the experience itself may be interpreted monistically (non-dualistically) as in Advaita Vedanta or theistically as in the Bhakti trend.

a) Advaita or Non-dualistic Experience

The main thrust of the Advaita or Non-dualistic school is the realization of the Vedantic teaching that the Inner Self of man (Atman) is identical with the Divine Absolute, Brahman, as succinctly expressed by the great saying (mahavakya): "Aham Brahmasmi (I am Brahman)". Sankara, the most prominent exponent of the advaita view, teaches: "Liberation (moksa) cannot be achieved except by the direct experience of the identity of Brahman and Atman (Brahma-Atmaekatvam)"¹⁸. This implies the simultaneous recognition of the illusory nature, not only of the phenomenal world, but also of one's own distinct individuality, more or less in the same way as one realizes, on waking up, that what one perceived as real in dream, was all illusory.

After due ascetical and moral preparations, the aspirant tries to interiorize and assimilate through constant reflection and contemplation, the Vedantic mantra, "Aham Brahmasmi (I am Brahman)", communicated by the guru. The Truth sinks deep into his heart, bringing about a gradual transformation of his outlook. Finally there comes the moment when the spiritual awakening bursts upon him. He is immersed in an all-consuming state in which the "I am Brahman" becomes a living, enstatic experience, which by its very nature is ineffable in as much as it implies the coincidence into complete unity of the knower (jnatr), the knowledge (jnana) and the known (jneya). He realizes the true Atman-Brahman, eternally blissful, the One only without a second (ekam evadvityam).

The one who arrives at this inner realization with a certain intensity and stability, is a jivanmukta, a living saint, a mystic. Though he is in the world for some time more, he is not of the world any more. He has attained already the summum bonum of life, which will be unfolded in its fullness as soon as the remaining psycho-physical powers are exhausted. The rest of his life on earth will be spent in the light of the experience of "I am Brahman". The Brahma-anubhara Upanisad tries to spell out the content of this state saying: "I am the fullness of Being-Consciousness-Bliss (saccidananda svarupa), the fullness of unconditioned Joy (bbumananda svarupa), the fullness of Light (jyoti svarupa), the fullness of Peace (santi svarupa)"¹⁹.

Thus at the climax of experience the mystic lives his real identity with Brahman. Also when he comes back to the normal condition he retains an uniterrupted consciousness of his supreme experience in such a way that he views and evaluates everything in that light. As the Chandogya Upanisad would put it, he sees the Divine above and below, right and left, in front and behind ²⁰. In other words, he has arrived at the inner realization of the fundamental truth advaita, of the non-duality of Reality.

The jivanmukta or the mystic becomes established in a state of ineffable attitude (ananda) which is accompanied by a profound peace (santz). Goodness and virtue become his second nature. "Absence of anger, dispassion, mastery over the senses, tranquillity, patience, universal love (visva-prema), absence of ed, generosity, fearlessness, absence of pride are the ten characteristics of jivanmukta" ^21.

When the psycho-physical powers are exhausted the mystic acquires the definitive unification with the Divine (videha mukti). It is not a state in which he, retaining his distinct individuality, enjoys the blissful communion with Brahman; on the contrary he becomes Brahman ²². The hail-stone is dissolved in the sea and becomes the sea itself. And Brahman, who is One only without a second (ekam evadvitiyam), is eternal Bliss.

b) Bhakti or Theistic Experience

Bhakti is defined as "the supreme love (parama-prema) of God", which consists in "the consecration of all activities, by complete self-surrender to him, and extreme anguish if he were to be forgotten" ²³. It presupposes, as different n the Impersonal Absolute of the Vedanta, a personalistic conception of God, who is the fullness of love and goodness. In the Bhagavad-gita we have the best expression of this conception, attributing as it does to the Lord Krsna all the prerogatives of the Vedantic Brahman.

Particularly noteworthy for our purpose is His relation to man, who is not called to identify himself with God in such a way as to forfeit his individuality in the absolute unity of the Divine, as the Advaita Vedanta would have it, but to enjoy a loving, interpersonal communion with Him. As the Lord Krsna himself declares in the Gita: "Listen to my supreme word, the most secret of all. Well beloved art thou of me, therefore I shall tell thee what is good for thee. Fix thy mind on me; be my bhakta; sacrifice to me; prostrate thyself before me; so shalt thou come to me. I promise thee truly, for thou art dear to me ^24.

The authentic bhakti results in an immediate knowledge and experience of God, a profound intimacy with him, a mutual presence of the devotee and the Divinity ²⁵. We have a lively illustration of this in the episode of the transfiguration of Krsna narrated in the Gita (Chapter XI Arjuna, with area trust in the godly greatness of Krsna, asks for the favour of a vision of his divine form. Krsna, in order to satisfy the earnest prayer of his devotee transfigures himself before Arjuna, and assumes an inexplicable cosmic form. The vision was so dazzling that the text says: "If the light of a thousand suns were to blaze forth all at once in the sky, that might resemble the splendour of that exalted being" ²⁶. The sentiments which the vision roused in Arjuna were those of deep humility, adoration and repentance for his faults.

Overwhelmed by the grandeur of the vision, Arjuna beseeches that it may be withdrawn. Then Krsna, resuming his ordinary human appearance, declare with great affability: "This form of mine, which is indeed very hard to see, thou hast seen. Even the gods are ever eager to see this form. In the form in which thou hast seen me now, I cannot be seen either by the Vedas or by austerities or by gifts or by sacrifices. But by unswerving bhakti to me, I can be thus known, truly seen and entered into" ²⁷. Again: "Those who worship me with bhakti, they are in me, and I also am in them" ²⁸.

A true bhakta lives in an uninterrupted consciousness of the presence c God everywhere and in everything, especially in himself, in such a way that he sees Him in every object, hears Him in every sound, thinks of Him with ardent sentiments and speaks of Him with words charged with love ²⁹. In fact the Hindu holy men are vivid examples of this sense of the nearness of God, of the consciousness of the divine immanence in the creatures. For instance, Kabir (1440-1518) sings:

"Since the day when I met with my Lord, there has been no end to the sport of our love.

I shut not my eyes, I close not my ears, I do not mortify my body;

I see with my eyes open and smile, and behold His beauty everywhere.

I utter His name, and whatever I see, it reminds me of Him; whatever I do, it becomes His worship. (...)

Whether I rise or sit down, I can never forget Him, for a rhythm of His music beats in my ears.

Kabir says: My heart is frenzied, and I disclose in my soul what is hidden. I am immersed in that one great bliss which transcends al1 pleasure and pain" ³⁰.

As a result of his intimate contact with God, the bhakta becomes well established in goodness and virtue; all his behaviour radiates peace and joy, harmony and respect, love and contentment ³¹. In short, he becomes a veritable symbol of the presence of God among men.

It is to be underlined at this point that, even though one should do everything possible, adopting the various means available, to grow in bhakti, human endeavour alone is not sufficient to make one perfect in it. Man's efforts need to be aided by the grace of God ³². In the Gita, for instance, Krsna, after explaining what one should do to reach perfection, adds: "Doing continually all actions whatsoever, taking refuge in me, he reaches, by my grace (prasada), the eternal, undying abode" ³³. This reciprocity of human efforts and divine grace has no relevance in a non-dualistic view, but it is fundamental to the bhakti approach which professes all through the devotee's dependence on the Divinity.IV — CONCLUSIONThus, a Hindu holy man lives an austere, detached, serene and peaceful life; conscious of the divine presence in everything and in everyone, he lives in harmony with the world around him and treats all living beings with respect.

Above all having realized in the depths of his being an abiding experience of the Divine, he is in a position to communicate to others the way of holiness with the irresistible authority of the one who has personally seen and heard and watched and touched the Transcendent Truth.Now, in view of a Christian dialogue with the Hindu vision of holiness, we may set out some observations. The positive spiritual values of the Hindu religious heritage which we have considered briefly do remain a standing challenge to the Church. To the Hindu mind these typical values constitute the criteria for judging the spiriual worth of other religious institutions and persons. If they find no convincing witnesses to such values in an institution, then they judge it as spiritually insignificant, whatever be its other achievements.While acknowledging the merits of the Hindu spiritual tradition and its eventual contribution to enriching Christian spirituality, we should also spell our clearly the important contribution which Christianity offers in order to liberate Hindu tradition from some of its entrenched drawbacks, especially regarding the social dimension of holiness.As a matter of fact Hindu tradition has a fundamentally defective social philosophy, which is reflected also in its spiritual quest which is predominantly individualistic. That explains why Hindu society, in spite of its numerous sages and saints, remained for centuries divided into so many castes, with undue privilege to the higher castes and untold humiliations and miseries to the lower caster and the out-castes: and all these with the approval and blessing of the scriptures. Despite the sublime ideal of universal love embedded in its long tradition, in practice it meant, at best, rather a passive attitude of harmlessness than an active, self-sacrificing dedication to the uplift of the downtrodden.Indeed Hinduism very much needed the acquaintance it had, in the 19^th century, with the humanistic ideas of the West, on the one hand, and the open criticisms and the practice examples of the Christian missionaries, on the other, in order to awake from its insensitive slumber and inculcate in the people an active, reformist social consciousness ³⁴. In modern times however many a Hindu holy man, besides being sincere seeker of God, has also been untiring defender of active service to the needy ³⁵.The social dimension intrinsic to Christian spirituality, based as it is on the Fatherhood of God and the consequent fraternity and basic equality of human beings, to be lived after the example and teaching of Jesus Christ and his disciples, and under the timely guidance of the Magisterium of the Church, offers a much needed "fulfilment" to the traditional Hindu approach to holiness.

FOOTNOTES

1 Cfr. S. N. DASGUPTA, Hindu Mysticism, New York 1973; M. ELIADE, Yoga, Immortality and Freedorn, New Jersey 1973; G. FEUERSTEIN, The Essence of Yoga, London 1974; S. ATMANANDA, Four Yogas, Bombay 1966; N. SMART, The Yogi and the Devotee, London 1968; D. ACHARUPARAM-Bil, Spintualita e mistica indu, Roma 1982; ID., La spiritualita dell'Induismo, Roma 1986; ID., The Integral Yoga according to Sri Aurobindo, in "Euntes Docete", 32 (1979), 163-190; N. GIOSTRA (Ed.), Le grandi figure dell'Induismo, Assisi 1991.2 Other synonyms like tyaga or abandoning, sannyasa or renunciation, all denote a turning away from worldly goods and values.

3 Cfr. Brhadaranyaka Up., 3,5,1; 4,4,22 [Up. = Upanisad]; Gita, 6,1-4; Sankara, Viveka-cudamani, nn. 18-27.

4  Katha Up., 6,14

5 Hindu Dharma, New Delhi 1978, p. 66.

6 The Crown of Hinduism,7, Oxford 1913, p. 251.

7 Cfr. Svetariratara up., 1,15-16; Prasna up., 1,10; Mandaka Up., 1,2,11.

8 Maitri Up., 4,3.

9 Cfr. Gita,, 17,14-19; 6,16-17.

10 Gita, 12,17-19

11 Sadhana, Macmillan India 1979, p. 6.

12 Brhadaranyaka Upanisad, 3,7,15; see ibid., 3,7,3-23; D. ACHARUPARAMBIL, The Sacredness of the Universe in the Hindu Scriptures, in "Ephemerides Carmeliticae", 26 (1975), 213-229.

13 Gita, 7,7.

14 Ibid 18, 61.

15 "It is to the credit of Hindu thought that it has, both in its legal and philosophical formulations, found a place for the duty of man towards the whole sentient creation" JOHN MCKENZIE Hindu Ethics, New Delhi 1971, pp. 245-246).

16 Manu, 6,68.

17 Hanjan, March 14,1936. He explains further: "The chief value of Hinduism lies in holding the actual belief that all life (not only human beings, but all sentient beings) is one, i.e., all life coming from One universal source, call it Allah, God or Parameshwara. (...) When we talk of brotherhood of man, we stop there, and feel that all other life is there for man to exploit for his own purposes. But Hinduism excludes all exploitation. There is no limit whatsoever to the measure of sacrifice that one may make in order to realize this oneness with all life" (Hanjan, Dec. 26,1936).

18 Viveka-cudamani, 58.

19 Brahma-anubhava Up., 1-4.

20 Cfr. Chandogya Up. 7,25,1-2.

21 Jyothir-bindu Up, 14.

22 The Mandaka Up. explains the ultimate state of the Vedantic experience thus: "Just as the flowing rivers disappear in the ocean casting off name and form, even so the knower, freed from name and form, attains to the divine Person, higher than the high. He, verily, who knows the supreme Brahman, becomes Brahman himself' (3,2,8); cfr. also Chandogya Up., 6,10,1-3.

23 Narada-bhakzi-sutra [hereafter = NBS], 2;19.

24 Ibid., 18,64-65.

25 NBS., 80.

26 Gita-, 11,12.

27 Ibid., 11,52-55. Krsna repeats: "Through bhakti he comes to know me, what and who I am in truth; then having known me in truth, he forthwith enters into me" (18,55).

28 Ibid, 9,29.

29 NBS., 55.

30 R. TAGORE, Poems of Kabir, Macmillan & Co. 1954, pp. 48-49, n. XLI.

31 Cfr. NBS., 4-6, 60, Gita, 12,13-19.

32 NBS. 38.

33 Gita, 18,56. "Fixing thy thought on me thou shalt, by my grace (prasada), cross over all difficulties; but if from self-conceit, thou wilt not listen (to me), thou shalt perish" (ibid., 18,58).

34 Cfr. J.N.Farquhar, Modern Religious Movements in India, New Delhi 1967; D.S.Sarma, Hinduism through the Ages, Bombay 1973; A.L.Basham (ed), A Cultural History of India, Oxford 1975; C.H.Heimsath, Indian Nationalism and Hindu Social Reform, Princeton+1964; P.Ashby, Modern Trends in Hinduism, New york 1974; T.M.P. Mahadevan and G.V.Saroja, Contemporary Indian Philosophy, New Delhi 1981; M.N.Srinivas (ed), Social Change in Modern India, New Delhi 1972; D.P.Singhai, India and World Civilization, Calcutta 1993.

35 In the following words of Tagore we may note, among other things, an eloquent appeal against the traditional social indifference of Hindu holy men:

"Leave this chanting and singing and telling of beads!

Whom cost thou worship in this lonely dark corner of a temple with doors all shut?

Open thine eyes and see thy God is not before thee!

He is there where the tiller is tilling the hard ground and where the pathmaker is breaking stones.

He is with them in sun and in shower and his garment is covered with dust.

Put off thy holy mantle and even like him come down on the

dusty soil!" (Gitanjuli, No. XI).