The Idea of Holiness in Buddhism by Michael Fuss
Editor's Note Fr. Michael Fuss is professor of Buddhism in the Pontifical Gregorian University and a Consultor to the Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue.
At the moment of his passing into the deathless Nirvana the Buddha (6th century B.C.) gave his final words to his monks:
"All conditioned things are subject to decay. Attain perfection through diligence! "1
This programmatic formula of the Buddha's world view envisages human nature as essentially conditioned and ever changing, demanding from his followers no more than an attentive awareness of this universal truth within the realm of their daily lives. Only the surprising emphasis on the need to strive for an ever greater perfection in observing this basic human condition might leave them puzzled. Would this "perfection" indicate the experience of holiness on a spiritual path which otherwise keeps silent on issues of transcendency? However, the quest for holiness in the Buddhist tradition remains essentially linked to the question whether Buddhism is a religion at all. In this regard, the words of N. Soderblom remain still valid:
"Holiness is the great word in religion... Real religion may exist without a definite conception of divinity, but there is no real religion without a distinction between holy and profane. The attaching of undue importance to the conception of divinity has often led to the exclusion from the realm of religion of... Buddhism and other higher forms of salvation and piety which do not involve a belief in God. The only sure test is holiness."2
In this brief paper I do not further discuss various definitions of religion; I rather attempt to offer a phenomenological survey on the notion of holiness (1) within the human yearning for liberation and (2) in the self-manifestation of the entire Reality. The search for traces of holiness firstly in the ascetic tradition of Theravada and then in the developed ideas of Mahayana Buddhism will prepare for a sharing of these ineffable experiences in a "core to core dialogue"3 with Christianity4. While a Christian notion of holiness, generally speaking, emphasizes mainly the gracious action of God, Buddhism underlines almost exclusively the human efforts in overcoming a self-centred ego. Such mutual complementarity in the radical purification of the human heart indicates the common exploration of the ineffable depth of human transformation as methodology of interreligious encounters.
I. THE NOBLE SEARCH FOR HOLINESS
A. The Path
In the light of his own liberating experience under the bodhi-tree the Buddha explained the situation of the world as follows:
"This dhamma realized by me is deep, difficult to see, difficult to understand, tranquil, beyond a priori reasoning, subtle, intelligible to the wise. However, these beings are delighting in attachment, delighted by attachment, rejoicing in attachment. So that for beings delighting in attachment, delighted by attachment and rejoicing in attachment, this is a difficult matter to see, that is to say, dependent arising by way of conditions (patierasamnppada). This too is a matter difficult to see, that is to say, the pacification of all dispositions, the renunciation of all attachment, the destruction of craving, the cessation of craving, freedom (nibbana)."5
With the notion of dharma (in pali: dhamma), further specified as dependent arising, and nirvana, appears the ultimate mystery which remainshidden to ordinary eyes, yet becomes intelligible to the Buddha's wisdom. This reality remains indispensably linked to the liberating experience, not as its immediate result but as a fruit of wisdom. The Holy concedes itself within the realm of human experience; it appears at the edge of one's mental faculties. In the Buddhist experience, the demarcation line between sacred and profane refers neither to spatial and temporal distinctions nor to two contrasting realities; it is exclusively to be grasped within the realm of one's own experience as a qualitatively transforming and totally overwhelming set of references. While dhamma (plural) are the smallest elements of perceptible phenomena and always exist in an endless chain of reactions among themselves, dhamma (singular) denotes these very same elements as void of any qualities in their original purity. Dharma, however, does not constitute a reality of its own; it is linked to the perceiving mind and presupposes congenial openness, or absence of any discriminating thoughts, in the process of its realization. On the other hand, in the above quotation the Buddha has also clearly envisaged the enslaving situation of unrest conditioned by the law of dependent origination and, consequently, the highest goal which is nirvana.
An ancient verse ascribed to the Buddha in the Milindapanha 6 says: "Not far from here do you need to look! Highest existence - what can it avail? Here in this present aggregate, In your own body overcome the world!"
Theravada Buddhism understands itself as a religion which pays attention exclusively to man's own craving. It is the way of one's individual life rather than a set of objective doctrines which each one has to follow in order to gain the liberating experience. However, human beings may not achieve wholeness by the immediate effects of their own efforts alone; on the contrary, in the measure to which they abstain from asserting themselves they are absorbed by the undefiled reality. The active spiritual ascetism may lead to a threshold from where the unconditioned reality can be realized "as it is"; yet even the most sublime states of meditation will not necessarily assure the grasping of liberation. One is reminded of similar kenotic experiences of growing less in order that the totally Other may grow in other mystical traditions Jn 3,30).
The opening verses of the Dhammapada affirm in similar way:
"(1) Ideas have mind as their pre-condition, are dominated by mind and are mind-made. If one were to speak or act with a polluted mind, as a result, suffering follows him, like a wheel that follows the foot of the beast of draught (2) Ideas have mind as their pre-condition, are dominated by the mind and are mind-made. If one were to speak or act with a serene mind, as a result, happiness follows him like a shadow that does not depart."7
Although ideas of experience are not produced by the mind, they have mind as a basis. The early Buddhists maintain that the mind indeed contributes to the nature of the ideas of experience. No objective reality exists independently from the purification of mind. Purity and serenity are indispensable conditions for the inner awareness of the sacred character of life and determine human responsibility regarding any action. The Buddha has been described by his contemporaries as "ever-smiling". In Buddhist painting the Buddha is always represented with a serene face. Joy is one of the seven essential qualities to be cultivated for the realization of nirvana. Reaching absolute purity and calmness of mind is the decisive point in the spiritual efforts and should also show psycho-physical results.
Since the Buddhist way of Self-experience begins with the anthropological dimension, it is a way of exclusion. The empirical ego is abandoned in search of the true Self; by overcoming the provisional world an inexhaustible depth is gained. The Four Noble Truths lead on this way as indispensable means on the way to liberation. They constitute the spiritual treasure of the Buddha's own realization and are recommended to Buddhist of all ages as the raft which carries to the other shore. The thorough analysis of the misery of this world and its overcoming by the elimination of negative causes refer to the very same reality (in the following quotation marked by the fourfold "this"), and yet require a radical change of one's point of view by the saving passage from ignorance to wisdom:
"Then with this thought thus serene, made pure, translucent, cultured, devoid of evil, supple, ready to act, firm and imperturbable, I applied and bent my thought towards the knowledge of the waning of influxes. I understand it as it has come to be: This is suffering, this is the arising of suffering, this is the cessation of suffering, and this is the path leading to the cessation of suffering."8
The central notion of dukkha ("suffering") emphasizes the fact that there is no objective "ultimate reality", but only "dependently arisen phenomena" which can be experienced in the dialectic between "becoming" (bhava) and "effects" (phala). In a similar way, the spiritual progress of the Buddhist monk on his way to holiness (arahat) ischaracterized by a fourfold passage from exercising himself on the "way" to harvesting its "fruits" 9. The driving force behind this dialectical progress is to be attributed both to the human quest and to the dynamics of the way itself 10. Translating dukka in a more general sense as "passivity" 11 shows even more clearly the existential condition of being subjected to constant changing without any permanent identity. Thus, all human experience is coloured by suffering; the original nature of humankind is total reliance. Ordinary beings are carried forward in this never-ending state of suffering (samsara) by ignorance focussing their attention on all kinds of activities, while only the sincere willingness of accepting this passivity, of turning the state of existential dependency into an open receptivity, brings forth a liberating revolution of the human attitude. The highest ideal for a Theravada monk is thus pure readiness, like a tree that bears the ripe fruit ready to leave it to anybody who likes to pluck it. Full awareness towards reality implies a complete sacrifice of any egoism. The ideal of holiness can therefore only be grasped within the spiritual act of its realization. Thus, the earnest endeavour of taking one's own being in hand through a process of spiritual maturation gives room for the dynamic process of the manifestation of the Holy; the one is permeated by the other. K. Hemmerle sees this experience as revealing a dynamic exchange of two dialectical poles of reality, common to all religions:
"The simultaneous presence of two apparently opposite characteristics distinguishes the religious attitude, which is open to the holy. One is the seriousness of personal existence: what is at stake is not any particular thing, but everything, myself, my salvation. Bur then the gravity of the concern for salvation causes the self to turn away from self, to transcend self and to trust to the infinitely other than itself. Where serious concern for self and open-hearted detachment from self coincide, access is thrown open to the holy. This, however, does not force the holy to appear. It gives itself only as a free gift." 12
B. The goal
All Buddhist schools consider nirvana as their summum bonum. It means the complete emptiness and quiescence of all factors of Self, it is beyond infinite space and the loftiest realms of meditation, and can be described only by mystical metaphors:
"There is no coming, no going, no staying, no deceasing, no uprising. Not fixed, not movable, it has no support. Just this is the end of suffering." 13
This extraordinary state, however, presupposes the radical purification of the mind and is related to supernatural wisdom: "Craving is penetrated by one who knows, there is no obstruction for one who sees."'4 Far from being a static entity, nirvana "happens" in the process of transforming individual consciousness into unconditioned wisdom; it is the coincidentia oppositorum within the transparency of being,
"a not-born, a not-brought-to-being, a not-made, a not-formed.... Since there is a not-born, a not-brought-to-being, a not-made, a not-formed, therefore an escape is discerned from what is born, brought-to-being, made, formed." 15
W. Rahula recalls a debate between Sariputra and Udayi. Having stated that "nirvana is happiness", Sariputra was asked by his friend about which kind of happiness could exist without sensation. He responded: "That there is no sensation itself is happiness."16 Highest reality appears in transcending all actual conditions of existence, beyond the eternal concatenation of happiness/suffering, good/evil, existent/non existent, which oppresses human life. Highest bliss, therefore, is pure experience beyond all earthly duality and relativity. The idea of holiness in Buddhism can therefore be equated with the state of original purity, transparency, similar to a brilliant diamond that does not obstruct the free flow of light. It is beyond subjective experience yet not independent from it. Buddhist soteriology understands holiness in terms of wisdom (prajna) which means the substitution of intellectual faculties and human clinging by a holistic vision of reality. The Dhammapada puts it thus:
"When one perceives through wisdom that all dispositions are impermanent (unsatisfactory, non-substantial), then one is disenchanted with suffering and this is the path to purity." 17
Nirvana is not extinction as the mere annihilation of human passion would suggest, and so Buddhism cannot be called a pessimistic world view; like two communicating pipes the composite existence has to vanish in order to give space to the unconditioned. Nirvana occurs as existential awakening to egolessness by overcoming the duality of pleasure and suffering, and becomes the source of freedom (vimukti) and creative activity. This entire process develops within the sentient being; no superior power would control this process. The popular question, "If there is no Self, who realizes nirvana?", can be answered only by looking at the dialectic of "thirst" and "wisdom" within the human individual. As "thirst" (tamba) is the source of craving and keeps in motion the never-ending circle of becoming and cessation, "wisdom" (pragna) penetrates the reality of things as they are leading the productive forces into a state of tranquillity. The Buddha can thus say: "Within this fathom-long sentient body itself, I postulate the world, the arising of the world, the cessation of the world, and the path leading to the cessation of the world" . In a radical anthropological turn, the Four Noble Truths as well as nirvana, i.e. the two complementary aspects of one and the same reality, are to be found within the realm of human experience.
THE SACRED UNVEILS ITSELF
A. Dynamic emptiness of Reality
From his soteriological interest, the Buddha refused to discuss an